A Long and Illustrious History

Table Of Content

Early Britain

History Before the Roman Invasion

 Britain was connected to Europe by a land bridge until about 10,000 years ago.

 Early inhabitants were hunter-gatherers who followed herds of deer and horses.

 Farming began about 6,000 years ago.

 Notable Stone Age Monuments:

• Stonehenge in Wiltshire
• Skara Brae in Orkney

 The Bronze Age (around 4,000 years ago)

• Skilled metalworkers who lived in roundhouses.
• Burials in round barrows.

 The Iron Age - Introduce iron tools and weapons

• Larger settlements and the development of hill forts (e.g., Maiden Castle).
• The first inscribed coins in Britain appeared.

The Roman Invasion

 Julius Caesar first invaded Britain in 55 BC but failed to conquer it.

 Emperor Claudius launched a successful British invasion in AD 43.

 Boudicca, Queen of the Iceni, revolted against Roman rule. 

• Her statue stands near the Houses of Parliament in London.

 Emperor Hadrian built a wall to keep away the Picts.

 The Romans stayed in Britain for about 400 years.

 Britain’s first Christian communities appeared in the 3rd and 4th centuries AD.

The Anglo-Saxons

 After the Romans left in AD 410, Britain was again invaded by:

• JUTES / ANGLES / SAXON

 Their languages formed the basis of modern English.

 By AD 600, Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were mainly in England.

 Sutton Hoo in Suffolk featured a ship burial with treasure and armor.

 Anglo-Saxons were originally pagan, converted to Christianity via: 

• Irish (St Patrick, St Columba) and, 
• Roman (St Augustine - 1st Archbishop of Canterbury) missionaries.

The Vikings

 Vikings first raided Britain in AD 789.

 King Alfred the Great: 

• United Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. 
• Defeated the Vikings.

 For a short period, Danish kings (CNUT or CANUTE) ruled England.

 The term “SCOTLAND” was used for 1st Time by KING KENNETH MACALPHIN.

The Norman Conquest (the last successful foreign invasion of England)

 In 1066, William defeated King Harold at the Battle of Hastings (BAYEUX Tapestry).

• William (Duke of Normandy) became William the Conqueror.

 Norman-French influenced the English language.

 Domesday Book - a detailed record of England's land, population, and resources.

The Middle Ages - From the Norman Conquest to 1485

War at home and abroad

 By 1200 - the English had established control in the Pale around Dublin in Ireland.

 In 1284, Edward I annexed Wales to England via the Statute of Rhuddlan.

 In 1314, Robert the Bruce defeated the English at the Battle of Bannockburn.

 English knights fought in:

• The Crusades.
• The Hundred Years War (116 years) - Battle of Agincourt (1415) was a notable victory under King Henry V.

 The English left France in the 1450s.

The Black Death (1348) - Killed about ⅓ of England’s population

 Labor shortages led to higher wages for peasants.

 New Classes emerged - the landowning gentry and a growing urban middle class.

 The Black Death severely affected Dublin (Pale) and reduced English control.

Feudalism - A system of land ownership used by Normans.

Legal and Political Changes

 Early Parliament - Originated from the king’s council of advisers.

 1215 - King John agreed to the Magna Carta, which states:

• Even the king must obey the law.
• King cannot tax or alter laws without involving nobles.

 Over time, Parliament split into:

• House of Lords: Nobility, great landowners, and bishops.
• House of Commons: Knights and wealthy town representatives.

 Scotland's Parliament had three Estates: lords, commons, and clergy.

 In England, “common law” evolved through precedents.

 In Scotland, laws were codified (written down).

A Distinct Identity

 The English language emerged from:

• Norman-French (spoken by the ruling class)
• Anglo-Saxon (spoken by peasants) 

 By 1400, English was used for official documents, the royal court, and Parliament.

 Castles (e.g., Windsor in Edinburgh) and cathedrals (e.g., Lincoln Cathedral) were built. 

• York Minster’s stained glass is especially famous.

 England became a key trading nation, especially wool.

 Many came to Britain to trade and work:

• Weavers from France
• Engineers from Germany
• Glassmakers from Italy
• Canal builders from Holland

 Geoffrey Chaucer - author of The Canterbury Tales.

 William Caxton – 1st Person to Print Books using Printing Press.

The Wars of the Roses - The First Civil War

 Began in 1455 - the House of Lancaster (red rose) vs. the House of York (white rose).

 Ended in 1485 - Battle of Bosworth Field.

• King Richard III died, and Henry Tudor became King Henry VII.

 The Tudor symbol combined a red rose with a white rose inside.

The Tudors and Stuarts

Religious Conflict

 Henry VII centralized power in England:

• Strengthened the central administration of England. 
• Reduced the power of the nobles.

 Henry VIII (son of Henry VII) - established the Church of England.

• Broke away from the Church of Rome and Married six times
  • Catherine of Aragon –  Mother of Mary
  • Anne Boleyn – Mother of Elizabeth I
  • Jane Seymour – Mother of Edward VI
  • Anne of Cleves – German princess
  • Catherine Howard – Cousin of Anne Boleyn
  • Catherine Parr

 Under Henry VIII:

• Wales formally united with England, 
• Welsh MPs began sitting in the House of Commons, and 
• Welsh law was reformed.

 Successor of Henry VIII - Edward VI

• Introduced Book of Common Prayer.

 Successor of Edward VI - Mary I (known as ‘Bloody Mary’)

• A devout catholic, persecuted Protestants.

 Successor of Mary I - Elizabeth I

Queen Elizabeth I - A Protestant Queen

 Restored the Church of England as the official state church.

 Successful in finding a balance between Protestant and Catholic views.

The Reformation in Scotland and Mary, Queen of Scots

 In 1560, Scotland’s Parliament ended the Pope’s power and banned Catholic services.

 Mary - Queen of Scots:

• Became queen at the age of 1 week.
• Fled to England - giving the throne to her son -> James VI of Scotland.
• Accused of plotting against Elizabeth I -> held captive for 20 years.

Exploration, poetry, and drama

 The Elizabethan era: Queen Elizabeth I

• English patriotism grew and the trade routes expanded in the Americas.
• Colonization of America began on the eastern coast.
• Known for rich poetry and drama - especially William Shakespeare.

 In 1588, the Spanish Armada was defeated by Commander Francis Drake

• His famous ship - Golden Hind.

 William Shakespeare (1564-1616) - greatest playwright of all time

• Known for poetry and plays - e.g., Hamlet, Macbeth, Romeo and Juliet.

James VI and I

 Successor of Elizabeth I - James VI of Scotland (Her Cousin)

• Became James I of England, Wales, and Ireland.
• Introduced new English translation of the Bible - King James Version

Ireland

 During Henry VII and VIII:

• English control extended in Ireland - Henry VIII took the title King of Ireland.

 During Elizabeth I and James I:

• Ireland opposed rule by the protestant government in England.
• English government set up Plantations in Ulster, Northern Ireland. 

The Rise of Parliament

 Elizabeth I skillfully balanced her views with both the House of Lords and the Protestant House of Commons.

 Divine Rights of Kings - James I and Charles I believed in it.

 Charles I attempted to rule without Parliament for 11 years.

 Troubles in Scotland ultimately forced Charles I to recall Parliament. 

The beginning of the English Civil War

 Charles I introduced a revised Prayer Book

• Imposed it on the Scottish Presbyterian Church -> Scots raising an army.

 Lacking funds for his own army, Charles I recalled Parliament in 1640.

• Parliament refused him money.
• Rebellion also in Ireland at the same time - further weakened Charles I
• Parliament demanded control of the army - shifting power away from Charles.

 Charles I tried to arrest five MPs in the House of Commons.

• Civil war broke out in 1642 between:
  • Cavaliers - King supporters
  • Roundheads - Parliament supporters 

Oliver Cromwell and the English Republic

 Parliament defeated Charles I at the Battle of Marston Moor and Naseby.

 Charles I was held prisoner and was executed in 1649.

 England declared itself a republic (the Commonwealth).

• There was still a revolt in Ireland.
• Oliver Cromwell succeeded in establishing control of parliament with violence.

 The Scots also had not agreed to the execution of Charles I

• Crowned his son, Charles II - King of Scotland
• Led a Scottish army into England. 

 Oliver Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Dunbar and Worcester.

• Charles II fled to Europe - famously hiding in an Oak tree

 Cromwell then titled Lord Protector - ruled until he died in 1658.

 Britain remained a republic for 11 years.

The Restoration

 In 1660, Parliament invited Charles II back from exile.

 He was crowned King Charles II of England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland.

 In 1665 - Major Plague in London - Many died

 In 1666 - Great Fire of London - Destroyed St Paul’s Cathedral

• Rebuilt by Sir Christopher Wren

 Habeas Corpus Act, 1679 - no one could be imprisoned without a court hearing.

 Charles II supported science and established the Royal Society - the world’s oldest surviving scientific society. 

• Early members - Sir Edmund Halley and Sir Isaac Newton.

 Charles II died in 1685.

A Catholic king

 Successor of Charles II - his brother, James II (James VII in Scotland).

• He was a Roman Catholic.
• He clashed with Parliament and even arrested bishops of the Church of England.
• His daughter married William of Orange (Protestant ruler of the Netherlands).

The Glorious Revolution

 In 1688, William of Orange invaded England.

• James II fled to France.
• He became William III of England, Wales, and Ireland and William II of Scotland.
• This is called the Glorious Revolution.

 James II invaded Ireland with the help of the French army.

• William defeated James II at the Battle of Boyne in Ireland in 1690.
• James II again fled back to France.
• Jacobites - Supporters of James II in Scotland.

A Global Power

Constitutional monarchy – the Bill of Rights

 The Bill of Rights (1689) - read at the coronation of William and Mary

• Limited the Monarch’s power and confirmed the rights of Parliament.
• Parliament took control of who could be Monarch.
• The king or queen must be Protestant.
• Elections for Parliament must held every three years.
• It is the beginning of the Constitutional Monarchy.

 Political parties began to form - Whigs and Tories

 At the time, only rich men were able to vote - No women at all had the vote.

 From 1695 - Newspapers started operating without a government license

A growing population

 Many Britishers migrated to settle in American colonies.

 Many came in:

• Jews in 1656 - settled in London (the first since the Middle Ages)
• Huguenots between 1680 and 1720 - from France

The Act or Treaty of Union in Scotland

 Queen Anne - the successor of William and Mary

• Had no surviving children, caused concern about the royal succession

 1707 - Act of Union agreed (Treaty of Union in Scotland)

• United England, Wales, and Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain.
• Scotland is no longer an independent country.

The Prime Minister

 Queen Anne died in 1714 -  George I elected to be the next King

• He was German and Anne’s nearest protestant relative.

 Jacobites attempted to place James II’s son on the throne but failed.

 George I did not speak English very well:

• Increased his need to rely on ministers.
• The role of the Prime Minister evolved.

 First Prime Minister - Sir Robert Walpole (1721 - 1742)

The rebellion of the clans

 1745 - Charles Edward Stuart (Bonnie Prince Charlie) attempted to restore the Stuarts to the throne.

• Defeated at the Battle of Culloden - George II won
• Highland Clearances started - Many Scots left for North America.

 Robert Burns (1759 - 96) - The Bard

• Wrote poetry in Scottish and English -  best known for Auld Lang Syne. 

 During the 18th century - New ideas in politics, philosophy, and science emerged (The Enlightenment). Some are:

• Adam Smith - Economics and Politics
• David Hume - Human Nature and Philosophy
• James Watt - Steam Power Invention
• Richard Arkwright - Carding Machine

The Industrial Revolution

 Before the 18th century - Agriculture was the biggest source of employment

 During the 18th and 19th centuries, there was a rapid development of industries (Industrial Revolution)

• Development of machinery and use of steam power.
• Coal was vastly used for power.
• Many moved from the countryside and started working in mines and industries.
• Bessemer process - mass production of steel
  • Boosted shipbuilding and railways.
• Canals were built to link factories and towns.

 This was also a time of increased colonization overseas.

• Captain James Cook - mapped the coast of Australia.
• Britain gained control over: 
  • Canada, 
  • India (East India Company), and 
  • Southern Africa.

 Sake Dean Mahomet (1759 - 1851)

• Opened Britain’s first curry house in London.
• Introduced Indian head massage - Shampooing

The slave trade

 Slavery was a fully established overseas industry - though it was illegal in Britain.

 First formal anti-slavery group - Quakers (late 1700s)

• Petitioned parliament to ban the practice (William Wilberforce)

 In 1807, it became illegal to trade slaves.

 In 1833, the Emancipation Act abolished slavery throughout the British Empire.

• 2 million Indian and Chinese workers replaced the freed slaves.

The American War of Independence

 In 1760, the British tried to raise raxes in American Colonies.

 In 1776, 13 American colonies declared their Independence.

 In 1783, Britain recognized the independence of American colonies.

War with France

 In the 18th century - Britain fought multiple wars with France.

 Emperor of France - Napoleon Bonaparte

 Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 - Britain’s navy VS French and Spanish fleets

• Admiral Nelson - In charge of the British fleet (killed in the battle)
  • Nelson’s column - Trafalgar Square, London
  • His ship HMS Victory - Portsmouth 

 Battle of Waterloo in 1815 - End of French Wars

• Duke of Wellington defeated Emperor Napoleon
• Wellington -> Iron Duke -> Prime Minister

The Union Flag

 In 1801, Ireland joined England (Act of Union of 1800).

• Created the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
• Symbol - the Union Flag
• The Union Flag has three crosses:
  • Red Cross - St George - England
  • Blue Background and White cross - St Andrew - Scotland
  • White Background and Red Cross - St Patrick - Ireland

 Welsh Flag - contains Welsh Dragon

 The first Union Flag was created in 1606.

The Victorian Age

 Queen Victoria - Longest reigning Monarch

• Became queen in 1837, at the age of 18 years.
• Reigned until 1901 (almost 64 years).

The British Empire

 The Victorian Period - Largest British Empire (more than 400 million people)

 Between 1853 and 1913 - 13 million British citizens left the country.

 Between 1870 and 1914 - around 120,000 Russian and Polish Jews came to Britain.

Trade and Industry

 1846 – Repeal of the Corn Laws.

 1847 – Working hours for women and children were reduced to 10 hours per day.

 Pioneers such as George and Robert Stephenson developed railway engines.

 Isambard Kingdom Brunel built tunnels, bridges, railway lines, and ships.

• The Great Western Railway and Clifton Suspension Bridge are key examples.

 In the 19th century - British industry led the world.

• Produced more than half of the world’s iron, coal, and cotton cloth.
• Became Center for Financial Services.

 Great Exhibition (a huge building made of steel and glass) opened in 1851.

The Crimean War

 In the Crimean War (1853 - 1856), Britain fought with Turkey and France against Russia.

• First war to be covered through media.

 Queen Victoria introduced the Victoria Cross (honors acts of valor).

 Florence Nightingale - Founder of Modern Nursing

• Established Nightingale Training School for Nurses.

Ireland in the 19th century

 In the Middle of the 19th century, Ireland suffered a famine (potato crop failed).

 Irish National Movement had grown in the 19th century.

• Home Rule was introduced - Ireland remained in the UK but with its own Parliament.

The right to vote

 The Reform Act of 1832, gave more people the right to vote. 

 The Reform Act of 1867, further increased voting rights.

 The Acts in 1870 and 1882 - allowed wives to retain their income and assets.

 In 1918, women over 30 gained the right to vote.

 In 1928, Both men and women aged 21 or more could vote.

 Women’s Suffrage Movement (founded by Emmeline Pankhurst).

 Emmeline Pankhurst founded the Women’s Suffrage Movement.

The Future of the Empire

 The Boer War (1899 - 1902) was fought in South Africa with settlers from the Netherlands (Boer).

 By the second half of the 20th century, countries started transitioning from Empire colonies to Commonwealth. 

 Rudyard Kipling - Nobel Prize Winner in Literature

• Wrote Just So Stories and The Jungle Book

The 20th Century

The First World War

 Early 20th century - time of optimism in Britain

• Old-age Pensions
• Free school meals
• Town planning rules
• Democratic local government
• Salaries for MPs were introduced

 28th June 1914 - Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated -> First World War

 First World War (1914 - 18):

• Allied Powers (Along with Britain) were France, Russia, Japan, Belgium, Serbia, Greece, Italy, Romania, and the United States.
• Central Powers were Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria.

 2 Million British Casualties in WWI.

• Battle of Somme (1916) - 60,000 casualties on the first day alone.

 11.00 am on 11th November 1918 - The First World War ended.

The Partition of Ireland

 In 1913, the British promised Home Rule for Ireland.

• Postponed due to WWI.

 In 1916, there was an uprising in Ireland for independence.

 In 1921, the Peace Treaty was signed.

 In 1922, Ireland became two countries.

• Six protestant countries in the north -> Northern Ireland
• Rest of the state -> Irish Free State
  • Became a republic in 1949

The inter-war period

 In the 1920s, living conditions in Britain got better.

 In 1929, the world entered the Great Depression.

• Heavy Industries like shipbuilding were badly affected.
• New industries like automobiles and aviation developed.

 The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)

• In 1922, started radio broadcasts.
• In 1936, the world's first regular television service started.

The Second World War

 In 1933, Adolf Hitler came to power.

 Hitler invaded Poland in 1939 - Britain and France declared War.

• Axis Power - Germany, Italy, and the Empire of Japan.
• Allied Side - UK, France, Poland, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and Union of South Africa (later US).

 In 1940, German forces defeated Allied troops.

 After France fell, 300,000 men were evacuated from Dunkirk (Dunkirk Spirit).

 Battle of Britain (1940) - aerial battle against the Germans

• Important planes - Spitfire and the Hurricane
• Blitz - night-time bombing of German planes over London.

 Japan bombed the US naval base at Pearl Harbor in 1941 -> the US entered the war.

 Also in 1941, Hitler attacked the Soviet Union - the largest invasion in history.

 6th June 1944 - allied forces landed in Normandy (D-Day)

 The end of the Second World War:

• In May 1945, the Allies defeated Germany.
• In August 1945, the United States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

 Ernest Rutherford - part of the Manhattan Project (developed Atom Bomb)

 Alexander Fleming - won the Nobel Prize in Medicine.

 During WWII, Winston Churchill became Prime Minister and Britain’s war leader.

• In 2002 - voted the Greatest Briton of all time.

Britain since 1945

The welfare state

 After WWII to the 1950s - the UK was economically exhausted.

• Workers from Ireland and other parts of Europe came to the UK.
• In 1948, workers from the West Indies were also invited.

 In 1945 - Labour Government (Clement Attlee)

• Introduced Welfare State - Beveridge’s plans
• Nationalized major industries.
• Established National Health Service in 1948 - Aneurin (Nye) Bevan

 William Beveridge wrote the 1942 Beveridge Report, officially titled "Social Insurance and Allied Services."

 In 1947 - Independence was granted to nine countries.

• Including India, Pakistan, and Ceylon (later Sri Lanka)
• Africa, the Caribbean, and the Pacific gained independence over the next 20 years.

 From 1951 to 1964 - Conservative Government (Harold Macmillan + Churchill)

• Period of Economic Recovery - 1950s
• British developed its atomic bomb and joined NATO.
• Harold Macmillan - Wind of Change speech

 R A Butler - Lord Butler

• In 1923 - Conservative MP
• In 1941 - Responsible for Education
• In 1944 - Education 1944 (The Butler Act)
  • Free secondary education in England and Wales.

Social change in the 1960s

 The decade of the 1960s (Swinging Sixties) was a period of social change.

• Growth in British fashions, cinema, and popular music.
• Social laws liberalised - Divorce and Abortion Laws
• Women get the right to equal pay.

The problems in the economy in the 1970s

 In the late 1970s, the post-war economic boom ended.

 In 1972, the Northern Ireland parliament was suspended -> directly ruled by the UK government.

 In the decades after 1969, many died in the violence of Northern Ireland.

Europe and the Common Market

 In 1957, the European Economic Community was formed.

• The UK joined in 1973.

Conservative government from 1979 to 1997

 From 1979 to 1997 - Conservative Government (Margaret Thatcher + John Major)

• Privatization of major industries.
• Imposed legal controls on trade union powers.
• John Major - Northern Ireland Peace Process.

 In 1982, Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands.

 Margaret Thatcher (1979–1990) - Longest serving PM of the 20th century

• In 1959 - Conservative MP
• In 1970 - the Secretary of State for Education and Science
• In 1975 - Leader of the Conservative Party
• In 1979 - the First Woman Prime Minister of the UK.

Labour government from 1997 to 2010

 From 1997 to 2010 - Labour Government (Tony Blair + Gordon Brown)

• Introduced Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly
• Good Friday Agreement in 1998 - Tony Blair
• Gordon Brown took over as PM in 2007.

Coalition government 2010 onwards

 In May 2010 - Coalition Government (David Cameron)

• Conservative + Liberal Democrat

British Inventions

 Television (1920s) - John Logie Baird

• In 1932, the first television broadcast between London and Glasgow was made.

 Radar (1935) - Sir Robert Watson-Watt

 Turing Machine (1930s) - Alan Turing

 Insulin - John Macleod

 Structure of DNA molecule (1953) - Frans Crick 

• Awarded Nobel Prize

 Jet Engine (1930s) - Sir Frank Whittle

 Hovercraft (1950s) - Sir Christopher Cockrell

 Concorde (1930s) - Britain and France

• World’s only supersonic passenger aircraft
• First flew in 1969; first carried passengers in 1976.

 Harrier Jump Jet - aircraft capable of taking off vertically.

 Cash-dispensing ATM (1960s) - James Goodfellow

 In-vitro fertilization therapy - Sir Robert Edwards and Patrick Steptoe

• In 1978, the first test-tube baby was born.

 Cloning (1996) - Sir Ian Wilmot and Keith Campbell

 MRI - Sir Peter Mansfield

 World Wide Web - Sir Tim Berners-Lee